The Investiture Controversy
{"blocks":[{"key":"19c3e","text":"The Investiture Controversy was a conflict between the Roman-German Emperor and the Pope in the 11th and 12th centuries, which arose over the question of who had the right to appoint church offices. This dispute marked a profound shift in power between secular and spiritual authority, leading to the strengthening of papal authority and the formation of the medieval church.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4efuk","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4vfvk","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":0}],"data":{}},{"key":"c971k","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2c9k2","text":"Background and Triggers","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1j6mi","text":"In the early Middle Ages, it was often in the hands of secular rulers to appoint bishops and abbots in their territories, a procedure known as \"investiture.\" The emperor or other rulers would hand over insignia like the ring and staff to the new officeholders to induct them into their spiritual offices. However, this practice allowed the realm to exert significant influence over the church and its hierarchy.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"a7t5p","text":"In the mid-11th century, the church reform movement began under Pope Gregory VII (pontificate from 1073 to 1085), which, among other goals, aimed to free the church from secular influence and strengthen its spiritual independence. A highlight of this reform movement was the introduction of celibacy for priests and the rejection of lay investiture, i.e., investiture by secular princes.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":82,"length":29,"key":1}],"data":{}},{"key":"194q1","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"ca22l","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":2}],"data":{}},{"key":"1gva6","text":"The Dictatus Papae (1075)","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":25,"key":3}],"data":{}},{"key":"dgab8","text":"The conflict was strongly influenced by the papal decree Dictatus Papae, which reinforced the pope's claim to supreme spiritual and secular authority.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":57,"length":14,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":57,"length":14,"key":4}],"data":{}},{"key":"67j4q","text":"The Dictatus Papae was a collection of 27 guiding principles written by Pope Gregory VII in 1075, likely as part of a reform strategy. These principles clarified the pope's claims to ultimate authority in spiritual and secular matters.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6bm3i","text":"However, they also posed a direct challenge to the authority of King Henry IV and formed the basis for Gregory VII's actions in the Investiture Controversy.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"df9q2","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"88ems","text":"The Beginning of the Conflict: Gregory VII and Henry IV","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8msah","text":"The Investiture Controversy escalated when Henry IV, Roman-German king and later emperor (1056–1106), continued to appoint bishops in his territories. Pope Gregory VII saw this as a direct violation of papal authority. On January 24, 1076, Gregory VII called on the Synod of Worms to excommunicate the king if he persisted in the investiture. However, Henry IV was not intimidated and, in turn, called for the pope's deposition.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":266,"length":14,"key":5}],"data":{}},{"key":"8cv05","text":"On February 22, 1076, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV and released his subjects from their oath of loyalty, dealing a severe blow to royal authority. This decision put Henry IV in a politically precarious position as his princes questioned their loyalty.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":57,"key":6}],"data":{}},{"key":"9mde1","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1thn8","text":"The Walk to Canossa","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"34cip","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":7}],"data":{}},{"key":"f78s0","text":"To secure his power and lift the excommunication, Henry IV finally decided to do penance before the pope. In January 1077, Henry IV embarked on the so-called “Walk to Canossa”. From January 25 to 27, he stood in a penitent's garb and in winter cold outside Canossa Castle, where Pope Gregory VII was staying. On January 28, 1077, Gregory finally lifted the excommunication after Henry had done penance. This symbolic act is often interpreted as the climax of the conflict and a victory of the pope over the emperor.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":158,"length":17,"key":8},{"offset":308,"length":64,"key":9}],"data":{}},{"key":"a5drb","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"32o4v","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"3513b","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cct14","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"a8me5","text":"Events Between the Walk to Canossa (1077) and the Concordat of Worms (1122)","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"841t0","text":"After the Walk to Canossa in January 1077 and the temporary lifting of the excommunication, the Investiture Controversy was far from over. The conflicts and power struggles continued, sometimes even more fiercely than before. Some of the key events of this phase are:","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"bmktq","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"5qeal","text":"1. Renewed Excommunication of Henry IV and Antipope Clement III (1080)","type":"header-three","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"fnci4","text":"Despite his penance at Canossa, Henry IV returned to the policy of appointing bishops and once again opposed Pope Gregory VII. On March 7, 1080, this led to a renewed excommunication by the pope. To strengthen his power, Henry IV then installed the Bishop of Ravenna as Antipope Clement III. This marked another escalation of the conflict.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":159,"length":23,"key":10},{"offset":235,"length":51,"key":11}],"data":{}},{"key":"39ag7","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cntoi","text":"2. Conquest of Rome and Flight of Gregory VII (1084)","type":"header-three","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"36tg2","text":"In 1084, Henry IV marched into Rome with his troops and installed Clement III on the papal throne. This pope crowned Henry on March 31, 1084, as emperor. Pope Gregory VII then fled to Salerno, where he died in exile on May 25, 1085. At this point, the Investiture Controversy seemed a victory for Henry IV, but papal power remained, and the conflict was not yet over.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":8,"length":43,"key":12},{"offset":56,"length":34,"key":13},{"offset":98,"length":54,"key":14}],"data":{}},{"key":"etuk2","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8r5ik","text":"3. Continuation of the Conflict under Urban II and Paschal II (1095–1111)","type":"header-three","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"bao8o","text":"After Gregory's death, his successors, especially Pope Urban II (pontificate 1088–1099) and later Pope Paschal II (pontificate 1099–1118), continued the fight against investiture by secular rulers. Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095 and strengthened the position of the papacy through the support of Christian princes.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":50,"length":37,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":50,"length":37,"key":15},{"offset":98,"length":35,"key":16},{"offset":214,"length":29,"key":17}],"data":{}},{"key":"7t6bg","text":"Under Emperor Henry IV, however, the dispute remained unresolved. After many years of internal struggles and another excommunication by Pope Paschal II, Henry was finally forced by his son Henry V to abdicate in 1105 and died in 1106. Henry V assumed the imperial office but soon had to confront the papal demand for independence himself.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":221,"length":12,"key":18}],"data":{}},{"key":"6jd5i","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"bejoc","text":"4. Disputes Between Henry V and Paschal II (1111)","type":"header-three","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1ffan","text":"Henry V also sought the investiture of bishops and thus came into conflict with Paschal II. In 1111, he tried to force a solution by arresting the pope and extracting concessions from him. The Treaty of Ponte Mammolo promised Henry the investiture of bishops but was soon annulled due to papal resistance and regarded as a defeat for both sides.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":193,"length":23,"key":19}],"data":{}},{"key":"5ln8j","text":"These events showed that a lasting compromise was necessary to regulate the balance of power between emperor and pope.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"aef8t","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"5648k","text":"The Concordat of Worms (September 23, 1122)","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4ok9u","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":20}],"data":{}},{"key":"ba29v","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6buv1","text":"It was only under Pope Calixtus II and Emperor Henry V that a final resolution of the Investiture Controversy was reached in 1122. The Concordat of Worms, concluded on September 23, 1122, in Worms, agreed on a compromise.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":135,"length":18,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":135,"length":18,"key":21}],"data":{}},{"key":"a16mc","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"9e59c","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":22}],"data":{}},{"key":"8f5mn","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"b2aes","text":"Consequences of the Concordat of Worms and the End of the Investiture Controversy","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"aic6i","text":"The Concordat of Worms meant the formal end of the Investiture Controversy and established a clear separation between secular and spiritual authority. It marked the beginning of a new power balance in Europe, where the papacy could assert its independence without completely undermining the secular rights of the emperor.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"decbv","text":"For medieval Europe, the Investiture Controversy had far-reaching consequences: The church could strengthen its political and spiritual power and establish itself as a supranational institution. At the same time, the monarchy was further consolidated in its role as a secular power. 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Walk to Canossa
Pope Gregory VII issues the Dictatus Papae, which establishes the pope's claim to power and limits investiture to ecclesiastical authority
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Henry IV demands a break with Pope Gregory VII and his removal at the Synod of Worms
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Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV and declares him deposed
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Henry IV arrives at the Castle of Canossa of Matilda of Canossa, to beg Pope Gregory VII to lift the ban of excommunication.
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Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV again and declares him deposed. At the same time, he declares anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfelden the rightful German king.
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Henry IV marches into Rome
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Antipope Clement III crowns Henry IV as Roman emperor
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Gregory VII is freed by Norman troops under Robert Guiscard and flees to the Castel Sant'Angelo
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Pope Gregory VII dies in exile in Salerno
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Negotiations for the Concordat of Worms begin in Worms
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The Concordat of Worms is concluded, establishing the division of spiritual and secular investiture and ending the Investiture Controversy
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Henry IV is released from the excommunication at the Castle of Canossa by Pope Gregory VII after he demonstrated his repentance with his Walk to Canossa.
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Papacy of Pope Gregory VII
Henry IV dies in Liège
Reign of Henry V as King of the Romans
Papacy of Pope Urban II
Papacy of Paschal II
First Crusade
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Treaty of Ponte Mammolo
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Reign of Henry V as Emperor
Reign of Henry IV as Emperor