The Ancient Egypt
Pharaohs, Events, Capitals
{"blocks":[{"key":"3h0eg","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cvsqe","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":0}],"data":{}},{"key":"bmfg2","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"793pk","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"d6s01","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":1}],"data":{}},{"key":"dc174","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4jr50","text":"The history of ancient Egypt is usually divided into the following main periods:","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"buna9","text":"the Predynastic Period, the Early Dynastic Period, the Old Kingdom, the First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom, the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom, the Third Intermediate Period, and the Late Period.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6083d","text":"These phases cover a span of over 3,000 years and show how Egyptian culture and society changed over the centuries.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"f08dc","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"9aovf","text":"Predynastic Period: Badarian and Naqada Culture","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":18,"key":2}],"data":{}},{"key":"2sgtq","text":"Origin and early settlements along the Nile","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"3buj1","text":"The Predynastic Period of Egypt (ca. 5500–3100 BCE) refers to the era before the emergence of a unified state. The fertile banks of the Nile attracted settlers even in prehistoric times, who secured their existence through agriculture and livestock. Floods and the resulting fertile soil made Nile communities more independent and led them to organize and develop specialized professions such as pottery and weaving.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7uaiq","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"36mp1","text":"Badarian Culture (ca. 58868–4000 BCE)","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":16,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":16,"key":3}],"data":{}},{"key":"2csr8","text":"The Badarian culture, named after the settlement of El-Badari, is considered one of the oldest sedentary cultures of Predynastic Egypt. The Badarians left remarkably well-preserved graves and sophisticated pottery, which provide insights into the religious beliefs of this culture. Their ceramics are known for their elegance and technical perfection, indicating that craft skills were already highly developed in this period. It is believed that they already had rudimentary social structures and made contact with other cultures through trade in valuable goods such as copper and rare minerals.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8r4tb","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"fk6t9","text":"Naqada Culture (ca. 4000–3100 BCE)","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":14,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":14,"key":4}],"data":{}},{"key":"bk61u","text":"The Naqada culture developed in three phases (Naqada I, II, and III) and significantly contributed to the formation of the unified Egyptian state. This culture is especially known for its advanced stoneworking techniques used for grave goods and cult objects. Artifacts from this period show the first instances of hieroglyphs, the later written language of Egypt. The Naqada culture was characterized by social hierarchy and religious beliefs reflected in elaborate tombs and burial rituals. During Naqada III, Egypt experienced a process of political centralization that led to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6kisi","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2a3u4","text":"Early Dynastic Period: The Beginning of the Pharaohs","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cl04e","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"88ptd","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":5}],"data":{}},{"key":"12ojc","text":"The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"24s21","text":"The Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3100–2700 BCE) began with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. This founding of the pharaonic empire is often attributed to King Menes, who, as the first pharaoh of both regions, bore the symbol of the double crown. The unification laid the foundation for one of the most stable and long-lasting monarchies in human history.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":170,"length":10,"key":6}],"data":{}},{"key":"ef51a","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"c6f14","text":"The Pharaoh as a Divine Ruler","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"d25t4","text":"In the Egyptian conception, the pharaoh was not only a political leader but a god-like ruler with divine legitimacy as the \"Son of Re\" (Sun God). The pharaoh was regarded as the intermediary between humans and gods, and his role encompassed both secular and religious duties. The populace saw him as the guarantor of cosmic and social peace, maintained through rituals and offerings.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"82fb7","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1ongm","text":"The Nomadic Kingship","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2uief","text":"To solidify his authority and collect taxes, the pharaoh undertook regular travels along the Nile, known as the nomadic kingship. He traveled with a large entourage that ensured the administration and organization of the remote areas. These journeys helped to gain the trust and loyalty of local rulers and secure control over the expansive realm.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"606eh","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"f1orb","text":"The Old Kingdom: The Era of the Pyramid Builders","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":15,"key":7}],"data":{}},{"key":"8cirs","text":"Central Administration and Society","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cne0f","text":"The Old Kingdom (ca. 2700–2200 BCE) was characterized by tight administration and centralization of power. Pharaohs such as Djoser and Khufu established a highly organized state system supported by a network of officials and priests in the provinces. Society was governed by a clear hierarchy, with the pharaoh at the top, followed by priests, officials, craftsmen, and farmers.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":124,"length":6,"key":8},{"offset":131,"length":9,"key":9}],"data":{}},{"key":"59aq7","text":"The Old Kingdom is the first flourishing phase of the Egyptian state. In world history terms, it is the earliest administratively organized territorial state of mankind.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4scau","text":"The pharaohs now ruled from a fixed residence, which remained in Memphis until the First Intermediate Period.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":65,"length":7,"key":10}],"data":{}},{"key":"2eab2","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7t2o0","text":"Djoser and the Step Pyramid of Saqqara","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"lg75","text":"Under Pharaoh Djoser and his ingenious architect Imhotep, the first monumental pyramid, the Step Pyramid of Saqqara, was constructed. This structure, originally beginning as a mastaba (flat building), revolutionized Egyptian architecture and was considered the first major stone construction in history. The pyramid was meant to manifest the pharaoh's power and divine status for eternity after his death.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":6,"length":14,"key":11},{"offset":49,"length":7,"key":12}],"data":{}},{"key":"8tqms","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4fch4","text":"The Pyramids of Giza: The 4th Dynasty and the Pinnacle of Pyramid Construction","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"fon7s","text":"By the fourth dynasty, the construction had been perfected through considerable experimentation. The pyramid built under Khufu was to remain the tallest structure in the world for over four millennia.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":121,"length":5,"key":13}],"data":{}},{"key":"740vv","text":"The great pyramids of Giza (Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure), which are part of the World Heritage, are masterpieces of architecture and symbolize the great power and organization of the Old Kingdom. The worker colonies established around these structures provide a glimpse into the lives of the workers who served the royal family. It is known that these workers were not slaves, as often assumed, but freeborn Egyptians who contributed to pyramid construction through a form of civic duty.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":35,"length":6,"key":14},{"offset":42,"length":12,"key":15}],"data":{}},{"key":"7et3i","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cviei","text":"First Intermediate Period: Political Instability and Economic Decline","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":25,"key":16}],"data":{}},{"key":"d620m","text":"Climatic Challenges and the 4.2-Kiloyear Event","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"5lh5c","text":"After a very long reign by Pepi II., the country became unstable. The collapse may also be related to the 4.2-Kiloyear Event, a climate event that resulted in phases of cooling and unusual dryness, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, which also greatly affected other cultures.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":27,"length":8,"key":17},{"offset":102,"length":19,"key":18}],"data":{}},{"key":"109ht","text":"According to Manetho, 70 kings ruled in the 7th dynasty towards the end of the Old Kingdom, each for 70 days.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":13,"length":7,"key":19}],"data":{}},{"key":"bnhrt","text":"The central monarchy lost power, and independent centers of power emerged in the provinces, which rivaled each other.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"akqbf","text":"During the First Intermediate Period, numerous petty kings ruled over various territories.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"75kcv","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"f6dle","text":"The Middle Kingdom: Reconstruction and Economic Upswing","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":18,"key":20}],"data":{}},{"key":"d1c6q","text":"Mentuhotep I. and the Reunification of Egypt","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":13,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":13,"key":21}],"data":{}},{"key":"1u3cu","text":"The Middle Kingdom (ca. 2050–1800 BCE) began with the reunification of Egypt under Mentuhotep I., who led the country out of the crisis of the First Intermediate Period. He laid the foundations for a new era of prosperity marked by cultural and economic renewal. The political structure was strengthened, and pyramid construction experienced a revival.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8b2nt","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"3lenj","text":"Amenemhat I. and the Centralization of the Empire","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":12,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":12,"key":22}],"data":{}},{"key":"e3ocr","text":"Amenemhat I., a former vizier of Mentuhotep IV., ascended the throne and enforced a central government and administration. He established the residence Itjtawy near Memphis to secure control over the provinces. During his reign, an economic expansion began, promoted by foreign trade relations.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":33,"length":14,"key":23},{"offset":148,"length":8,"key":24}],"data":{}},{"key":"d3ruo","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4gllv","text":"Second Intermediate Period: Hyksos Foreign Rule and the Struggle for Unity","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":26,"key":25}],"data":{}},{"key":"89j70","text":"The Rule of the Hyksos","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2uvub","text":"The Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1800–1550 BCE) introduced a new phase of foreign domination with the invasion of the Hyksos. The Hyksos, a group of foreign rulers, took over the Nile Delta and introduced new technologies like the horse and chariot. While they ruled northern Egypt, the southern regions remained under the control of Egyptian princes.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":121,"length":6,"key":26}],"data":{}},{"key":"6m2ab","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cantg","text":"New Kingdom: The Rise to Superpower Status","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":11,"key":27}],"data":{}},{"key":"f14r6","text":"The New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 BCE) marked the period of Egypt's greatest territorial and cultural influence. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom led military campaigns far beyond the country's borders, developed new administrative systems, and promoted religion and the arts. With the New Kingdom, Egypt experienced a golden age and reached the peak of its political power.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"bt4lp","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8uri8","text":"The Expulsion of the Hyksos and Reunification under Ahmose I.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":52,"length":9,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":52,"length":9,"key":28}],"data":{}},{"key":"21pca","text":"The New Kingdom period began with the successful struggle against the Hyksos under Pharaoh Ahmose I. He expelled the foreign rulers and reunited Egypt under a single ruler. Ahmose I. founded the 18th dynasty, which initiated a long era of prosperity and expansion.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":83,"length":17,"key":29}],"data":{}},{"key":"bf225","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cp23v","text":"Hatshepsut: The Great Ruler and Her Mortuary Temple","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":10,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":10,"key":30}],"data":{}},{"key":"4cbah","text":"Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs, led Egypt to prosperity and peace. She promoted major trading missions, including the famous journey to the legendary land of Punt, from which valuable goods like incense and myrrh were brought back. Hatshepsut built a monumental mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari, considered a masterpiece of architecture to this day.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"br61p","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6ucob","text":"Thutmose III and the Battle of Megiddo","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":12,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":12,"key":31}],"data":{}},{"key":"cmt9h","text":"Thutmose III is revered as one of the greatest warrior kings in Egyptian history. He led numerous campaigns in the Near East and the area of present-day Syria to secure and expand the Egyptian empire. The Battle of Megiddo, which he won, is considered one of the first well-documented battles in history and significantly contributed to Egypt's power position in the eastern Mediterranean.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":205,"length":17,"key":32}],"data":{}},{"key":"b6mfn","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"594hb","text":"Akhenaten and the Religious Revolution","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":9,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":9,"key":33}],"data":{}},{"key":"aqgf0","text":"One of the most radical changes in the New Kingdom was brought about by Pharaoh Akhenaten. He introduced a monotheistic religion centered on the sun god Aten. Akhenaten had a new capital, Amarna, built and adopted a revolutionary naturalistic style in art. This religious shift, known as the “Amarna Period,” was reversed after his death, as both the priesthood and the people returned to polytheistic beliefs.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":188,"length":6,"key":34}],"data":{}},{"key":"807o6","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"eti6o","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":35}],"data":{}},{"key":"8lcbb","text":"Tutankhamun: The Boy King and His Famous Tomb","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":11,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":11,"key":36}],"data":{}},{"key":"ep5hf","text":"After Akhenaten's death, Tutankhamun, a boy king, came to power. Although he died young and his reign was brief, his intact tomb discovered in the Valley of the Kings in 1922 by Howard Carter, provided valuable insights into the life and funerary practices of ancient Egypt.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":25,"length":11,"key":37}],"data":{}},{"key":"9do14","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"f0t9n","text":"Ramses II and the Egyptian-Hittite Peace Treaty","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":9,"style":"BOLD"}],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":9,"key":38}],"data":{}},{"key":"jusn","text":"Ramses II, also known as Ramses the Great, ruled for about 66 years and is regarded as one of Egypt's most significant pharaohs. He led the empire to flourish and commissioned numerous constructions, including the temple complex of Abu Simbel. In the Battle of Kadesh, Ramses II fought against the Hittite Empire, and the resulting peace treaty is considered the first documented peace treaty in world history.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"30nhr","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"bk6pk","text":"Religion and the World of Gods: Beliefs and Funerary Practices","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"45l8d","text":"Religion permeated all areas of Egyptian life. The Egyptian pantheon included numerous gods and goddesses representing natural phenomena, cosmic order, and daily life. Egyptians believed in life after death and developed elaborate burial rituals characterized by pyramids, tombs, and mummification.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4s8jh","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"5oh01","text":"The Principal Gods of Ancient Egypt","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8sjod","text":"Ra: The sun god Ra was considered the creator and supreme deity. He was often depicted as a man with a falcon head on which the solar disk was enthroned.","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"41vkt","text":"Osiris: The god of the underworld and rebirth was central to the funerary cult. He symbolized the hope for eternal life.","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7fgu1","text":"Isis: The goddess Isis embodied love and magic. She was the wife and sister of Osiris and was revered as a powerful protective goddess.","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"6m9q4","text":"Horus: The son of Isis and Osiris, the falcon god Horus represented kingship and the sky.","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"69ipu","text":"Anubis: The jackal-headed Anubis was the god of mummification and funerary rites.","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8s5m1","text":"","type":"unordered-list-item","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"4usu6","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7k999","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":39}],"data":{}},{"key":"dhjja","text":"The Funerary Cult and the Significance of the Pyramids","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8n6g2","text":"The funerary cult of ancient Egypt was based on the belief in an afterlife. The pyramids served as monumental tombs for the pharaohs, who wished to enter the afterlife after their death. The Egyptian afterlife concept involved trials and judgment by Osiris, where the hearts of the deceased were weighed. Only the righteous souls received eternal life.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2vrru","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1l4va","text":"Mummification","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"2gv11","text":"The Egyptians developed a complex procedure for mummification to preserve the body for the afterlife. The process, which took about 70 days, involved organ removal, body drying, and wrapping in bandages. Mummification was considered an important act of preparation for the afterlife and was performed by priests with sacred rituals.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"b1baf","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"15hvk","text":"Architecture and Building: Pyramids, Temples, and the Valley of the Kings","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"cd84b","text":"The Pyramids of Giza","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"430if","text":"The great pyramids of Giza, built under the pharaohs of the 4th Dynasty (Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure), are among the most significant architectural masterpieces in the world. They are not only tombs but also symbols of the pharaohs' divine authority. The construction, precise measurement, and work organization of these structures demonstrate high technical and organizational competence.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":73,"length":5,"key":40},{"offset":78,"length":6,"key":41},{"offset":84,"length":5,"key":42}],"data":{}},{"key":"2us6k","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"ceu3","text":"The Temples of Karnak and Luxor","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7inbk","text":"The temple complexes of Karnak and Luxor, built on the eastern bank of the Nile, are among the most impressive sacred buildings of ancient Egypt. The Karnak temple complex evolved over centuries and was dedicated to the main god Amun. Numerous pharaohs left their marks in the form of obelisks, colonnades, and statues. The Luxor temple, also dedicated to Amun, was started under Amenhotep III and expanded by Ramses II.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"9f814","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"e03ed","text":"The Valley of the Kings","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"fqs96","text":"At the beginning of the New Kingdom, pharaohs moved away from pyramid construction and chose hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings. These tombs, carved deep into the rock faces of western Thebes, were meant to protect against tomb robbers. Here lie the tombs of famous pharaohs such as Ramses II, Seti I, and Tutankhamun.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":288,"length":9,"key":43},{"offset":297,"length":6,"key":44},{"offset":304,"length":9,"key":45}],"data":{}},{"key":"4dkoa","text":"Daily Life and Society: Social Life, Occupations, and Leisure","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"51ss3","text":"Social Classes and Occupations","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"7qn5m","text":"Ancient Egyptian society was strictly hierarchical. At the top were the pharaoh and his family, followed by priests, officials, and nobles. Craftsmen and farmers formed the backbone of society, while slaves represented the lowest class. Daily life was shaped by agricultural work, secured by the regular Nile floods.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"8bfqi","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"dk0s1","text":"Clothing and Diet","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"b3jja","text":"Egyptian clothing was predominantly made of linen, produced from flax. Men usually wore kilts and women wore long, fitted dresses. The diet included bread, vegetables, and fish; meat was rarer and mainly reserved for the upper classes.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"11olg","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"89bht","text":"Leisure and Festivals","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"aib1v","text":"Festivals and religious ceremonies played an important role in the daily life of Egyptians. They celebrated the great feast days of the gods and observed harvest festivals. 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Fish
Only attested by clay inscriptions.
Pen-abu
Attested through clay inscriptions, reading of his name is uncertain.
Animal
Only attested by clay inscriptions.
Stork
Only attested by clay inscriptions.
Dog
Only attested by clay inscriptions.
Bull
Existence disputed, possibly not a name but a place or religious designation. According to Dreyer, a petty king and rival ruler to Scorpion I.
Scorpion I.
Writing and irrigation systems are said to have been introduced during his reign.
Hedju-Hor
Existence and chronological placement of this king are very uncertain.
Ni-Hor
Known from clay and stone vessels from tombs in Tarchan, Tura and Naqada. The reading of the name is uncertain.
Double Falcon
Known from clay and stone vessels from El Beda, El-Mehemdia, and North-West Sinai.
Ni-Neith
Known from two clay inscriptions on vases from tomb 257 in Helwan.
Hat-Hor
Known from a vessel in Tura. Reading and interpretation of his name are uncertain.
Crocodile
Existence highly disputed. Known from clay seals from Tarchan and Saujet el-Arjan. According to Dreyer, a rival king.
Iri-Hor
Existence disputed, possibly not a name but merely an ownership mark.
Scorpion II.
Tomb in Hierakonpolis or Abydos. A depiction from Hierakonpolis shows him wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt.
Ka/Sechen
Tomb in Abydos. Name reading uncertain.
Narmer
Double tomb in Abydos. Cultural and religious upsurge. The classification of Narmer into the 0th dynasty is disputed (cf. Menes).
Seka
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Iucha
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Tiu
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Itjiesch
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Niheb
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Wenegbu
Only attested on the Palermo Stone.
Imichet
Only attested on the Palermo Stone. Followed by another destroyed name.
Horus Aha (Menes)
First king of Egypt. Usually identified with Menes. Tomb in Abydos.
Teti I., Atoti
Recorded only in later king lists.
Djer
Campaigns into Nubia. Tomb in Abydos.
Wadji (Djet)
Tomb in Abydos. Known for his artful tomb stela.
Den (Udimu)
Tomb in Abydos. Long reign, advances in art and writing. Also, a war against Asiatic Bedouins.
Anedj-ib
Tomb complex in Abydos. Commissioned an unusually large number of cult statues.
Semerchet
Tomb in Abydos. According to Manetho, Egypt suffered a "great calamity" under him.
Qaa
Tomb in Abydos. First evidence of a mortuary temple at the tomb.
Snefer-ka
Barely attested ruler from the end of the 1st dynasty.
Bird
Also barely attested ruler from the end of the 1st dynasty.
Sechet
Existence and chronological assignment very uncertain.
Hetep-sechemui
Rulers are now buried in Saqqara. According to Manetho, Egypt experienced a severe earthquake under him.
Neb-Re
Likely buried in Saqqara, possibly the first signs of a sun cult. Might be identical with Weneg.
Ni-netjer
Tomb in Saqqara. Possibly governing and economic crises toward the end of his reign.
Nubnefer
Known contemporarily only by two vessel inscriptions. Classification uncertain.
Weneg
Known contemporarily by eleven vessel inscriptions. Chronological assignment and identity uncertain.
Wadjenes
Not attested contemporarily. Possibly identical with Weneg, Sechemib, or Peribsen.
Sened
Known contemporarily only by one vessel inscription. Possibly identical with Peribsen.
Sechemib
Identical with Peribsen, his successor, or a rival king during his reign.
Peribsen
Tomb in Abydos. Adopted a Seth name instead of a Horus name.
Neferkare I. / Aaka
Not attested contemporarily.
Neferkasokar
Not attested contemporarily.
"Hudjefa I."
Pseudonym for a ruler whose name was lost.
Hor-Seth-cha-sechemui
Chasechemui
Nebka
Possibly identical with Sanacht.
Djoser
Built the first pyramid in Egypt (Step Pyramid) in Saqqara.
Sechem-chet
Attested by seal rollings and relief images. Unfinished pyramid in Saqqara.
"Hudjefa II."
Pseudonym for a ruler whose name was lost.
Mesochris
Exact classification uncertain, not attested contemporarily.
Nebkare
Exact classification uncertain, not attested contemporarily.
Neferkare
Exact classification uncertain, not attested contemporarily.
Huni
Presumed builder of some smaller pyramids. Burial site unknown.
Sa-nacht
Possibly identical with Nebka. Burial site unknown.
Cha-ba
Probable builder of a pyramid in Saujet el-Arjan.
Qa-hedjet
Attested only by a stela.
Sa
Exact classification uncertain.
Snofru
Three pyramids (Meidum and Dahshur [2x]), transition from step to true pyramid.
Khufu
Builder of the Great Pyramid of Khufu; expeditions to Nubia and the Sinai, trade with Byblos.
Radjedef, Djedefre
Pyramid in Abu Roash (possibly unfinished)
Khafre
Known only through his pyramid in Giza. Trade with Syria and Byblos.
Bicheris
Existence uncertain, not attested contemporarily. Possibly an unfinished pyramid in Saujet el-Arjan.
Menkaure (Mencheres)
Mainly known through his pyramid in Giza. Pharaohs are now revered as the "son of Re".
Shepseskaf
Large mastaba in South Saqqara.
Thamphthis
Existence uncertain, not attested contemporarily. Perhaps identical with Queen Khentkaus I.
Userkaf
Pyramid in Saqqara, sun temple in Abusir.
Sahure
Pyramid in Abusir, sun temple (missing). Expeditions to the Sinai and Nubia, trade with the Near East, possibly war against the Libyans.
Neferirkare
Pyramid in Abusir, sun temple (missing).
Shepseskare
Only attested by seal impressions from Abusir.
Reneferef (Nefer-ef-Re)
Pyramid in Abusir (unfinished), sun temple (missing).
Niuserre
Pyramid in Abusir, sun temple in Abu Gurob.
Menkauhor
Pyramid maybe identical with the Lepsius L Pyramid in Dahshur or the Lepsius XXIX Pyramid in North Saqqara. Sun temple (missing).
Djedkare Isesi
Pyramid in South Saqqara.
Unas
Pyramid in Saqqara with the oldest Pyramid Texts.
Teti II.
Pyramid in North Saqqara.
Userkare
Possibly usurper or temporary regent for the underage Pepi I.
Pepi I.
Pyramid in Saqqara. Reign marked by internal tensions.
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I.
Pyramid in South Saqqara (unfinished). Campaign into Nubia.
Pepi II.
Reigned over 60 years. Decentralization of administration. Pyramid in Saqqara.
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II.
Known contemporarily only by a decree from South Saqqara.
Nitocris
Queen or king not attested contemporarily.
Netjerikare
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Menkare
Known contemporarily only by seal impressions.
Neferkare
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkare Nebi
Son of Pepi II. Said to have built a pyramid that has not yet been found and probably never progressed past planning.
Djedkare Shemai
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkare Chendu
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Merenre
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkamini
Known only from the Abydos king list and its copy by Ramesses II.
Nikare I. (Ni-ka-Re)
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkare Tereru
Known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkahor
Known only from the Abydos king list and from seal impressions.
Neferkare Pepiseneb
Known only from the Abydos king list and the Turin King List.
Neferkamin Anu
Known only from the Abydos king list and possibly the Turin King List.
Ibi
His only known monument is a small pyramid in Saqqara.
Neferkaure
Certainly known only from the Abydos king list.
Neferkauhor Chuiuihapi
Some of the Coptos decrees originate from his reign.
Neferirkare II. (Nefer-ir-ka-Re)
Precise classification very uncertain. Known with certainty only from the Abydos list.
Sechem-ka-Re (Anch-ka-Re)
Reading of the name and precise classification very uncertain, possibly identical with Nemtiemsaef II. (6th Dynasty).
Wadj-ka-Re
Only attested in the name of an official.
Iti
Precise classification very uncertain.
d Imhotep
Precise classification very uncertain.
e Hetep
Precise classification very uncertain.
f Chui
Precise classification very uncertain.
g Isu
Precise classification very uncertain.
h Iytenu
Precise classification very uncertain.
Wah-ka-Re-cheti I.
Classification uncertain.
Neferkare III.
Classification uncertain.
Mer-ib-Re
Classification uncertain.
Nefer-ka-Re-cheti III.
Classification uncertain.
Neb-kau-Re-cheti
Precise classification very uncertain.
Meri-ka-Re
Precise classification very uncertain.
Mentuhotep I.
Only considered a king in later tradition.
Anjotef I.
First Theban king; Egypt is now divided into two realms.
Anjotef II.
Antef II. secured the rule of the 11th Dynasty in the south up to Elephantine and expanded the power northwards.
Anjotef III.
Little is known about his reign. He might have continued the expansion northwards.
Mentuhotep II.
Mentuhotep II. ended the rule of the 9th/10th Dynasty and reunited Egypt. The point of reunification is considered by some Egyptologists as the actual beginning of the Middle Kingdom.
Mentuhotep III.
Attested by numerous temple buildings.
Mentuhotep IV.
Only attested by rock inscriptions and a sacrificial table.
a An(jotef)
Precise classification unclear; presumably a rival king or throne claimant.
b Ijibchentre
Precise classification unclear; presumably a throne claimant.
b Segerseni
Precise classification unclear; presumably a throne claimant.
Amenemhet I.
Amenemhet I. was perhaps a vizier under Mentuhotep IV before his rise to power. He completed the reunification and appointed his son Sesostris I. as co-regent in the 20th year of his reign. He built a pyramid in El-Lisht.
Sesostris I., Sesonchosis
Sesostris I. was probably the most significant ruler of the 12th Dynasty. He is attested by very extensive building activity. Important literary works, such as the Story of Sinuhe, were created during his reign. He built a pyramid in El-Lisht.
Amenemhet II.
Amenemhet II. engaged in intensive trade relations with the Near East and Crete. For about two years, he was co-regent with his father Sesostris I. He built a pyramid in Dahshur.
Sesostris II.
Sesostris II. was co-regent with his father Amenemhet II for three years. He built a pyramid in El-Lahun.
Sesostris III.
Strong centralization of the country. His reign lasted 19 years. Previous uncertainties regarding the reign length were based on the data of the Stele Berlin 1204, which was initially misinterpreted. Interim analyses of the lunar data could determine the exact reign length.[8] In the New Kingdom, Sesostris III was deified and considered the patron of Nubia. He built a pyramid in Dahshur.
Amenemhet III.
The most significant achievement of his reign was the development of the Fayyum. A co-regency with his father Sesostris III is not confirmed. He built two pyramids, the first in Dahshur and the second in Hawara.
Amenemhet IV.
Several expeditions to Sinai are attested from his reign. He was probably co-regent with his predecessor Amenemhet III for about a year. It is unclear whether he was the builder of the southern pyramid of Mazghuna.
Nofrusobek
Nofrusobek was the first contemporarily verifiable queen of Egypt. It is unclear whether she built the northern pyramid of Mazghuna.
Seanchibre
Either a rival king or identical with Amenemhet I, Sesostris I, or Amenemhet II before a name change.
Wegaf
Probably the first king of the 13th Dynasty, although it was also speculated that Sobekhotep II was the first ruler of this dynasty.
Amenemhet V.
Another alleged king named Amenemhetsenbef should be dismissed, as he is identical with Amenemhet V.
Sechemrechuitaui
Previously identified with Pentini, who is likely an independent king.
Ameni Qemau
Known only from his pyramid in Dahshur. His precise classification is uncertain.
Sehetep-ib-Re
Contemporarily attested only by a cylinder seal and a stele.
Efni (Iuefni)
Only attested in the Turin King List.
Amenemhet VI.
Contemporarily evidenced by only a few testimonies.
Nebennu (Nebnun)
Contemporarily evidenced only by a stele.
Qemausahornedjherjotef
Probably a king of Asiatic origin.
Sewadj-ka-Re
Only attested in the Turin King List.
Nedjem-ib-Re
Unambiguously attested only in the Turin King List. Two scarab findings are uncertain.
Sobekhotep
Contemporarily attested by monuments from Abydos. Precise classification very uncertain.
Renseneb Amenemhet
Attested only in the Turin King List and on a pearl. In the King List, his reign is stated as four months.
Hor I.
Buried next to the pyramid of Amenemhet III in Dahshur.
Amenemhet VII. Kay
Contemporarily attested by only a statue, some cylinder seals, and a scarab.
Sobekhotep II.
Possible builder of a pyramid in Saqqara.
Chendjer
Built a pyramid in South Saqqara.
Emramescha (Mermescha)
Contemporarily evidenced by two statues from Tanis.
Anjotef IV.
Contemporarily attested only by a statue and some scarabs.
Seth
Only attested in the Turin King List.
Sobekhotep III.
Building activity throughout the country.
Neferhotep I.
Expeditions to Byblos, numerous monuments of the ruler are preserved and evidence a certain late bloom of the Middle Kingdom.
Sahathor
Ruled only a few months.
Sobekhotep IV.
Numerous monuments from all parts of the country.
Sobekhotep V.
Contemporarily attested only by some scarabs.
Jaib
Contemporarily evidenced by only a few testimonies.
Aja I. (Eje I.)
Last ruler of the Second Intermediate Period, attested both in the north and south of the country.
Sobekhotep VI.
Contemporarily attested only by some monuments, but their attribution is not always clear.
b Ani
Perhaps identical with Sobekhotep VI, as he bears the same throne name.
Sewadjtu
Attested only in the Turin King List and perhaps in the Karnak King Table.
Ined
Only attested in the Turin King List. Perhaps identical with Neferhotep II.
Neferhotep II.
Contemporarily attested by two statues.
Hori
Evidenced with certainty only in the Turin King List.
Sobekhotep (VII.)
He is the last ruler of the 13th Dynasty whose name is preserved in the Turin King List. The sequence of subsequent kings is therefore very uncertain.
c Dedumose
Precise classification uncertain. Perhaps identical with Dedumose Djed-nefer-Re.
d Dedumose
Precise classification uncertain. Perhaps identical with Dedumose Djed-hetep-Re.
e Ibi II.
Only attested in the Turin King List.
f Hor II.
Only attested in the Turin King List.
Se-…-ka-Re
Only attested in the Turin King List.
h Senebmiu
Attested by a few contemporary testimonies and a possible mention in the Turin King List.
Secha-en-Re
Attested by some fragments from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II and a possible mention in the Turin King List.
Mer-cheper-Re
Attested only on a fragment of the Turin King List and possibly by a scarab.
Mer-ka-Re
Attested only on a fragment of the Turin King List.
l Sesostris IV.
Precise classification unclear. Contemporarily attested by a few monuments.
m Mentuemsaf
Attested by a stele and several scarabs.
n Neferhotep III.
Precise classification uncertain, reports of battles in his capital Thebes.
o Mentuhotep V.
Precise classification uncertain.
p Usermonth
Precise classification uncertain.
q Sobekhotep VIII.
Attested in the Karnak King List.
r Ini I.
Attested only by a statue.
s Mentuhotep VI.
Attested by a relief fragment from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II.
t Senaaib
Attested only by a stele from Abydos.
u Sobekhotep IX.
Clearly attested only by scarabs.
v Upuautemsaf
Attested only by a stele and probably by a graffito.
w Abai
Attested only in the Memphite priestly genealogy.
x Aqen
Attested only in the Memphite priestly genealogy.
y Sebekai
His name is only mentioned on a knife from Abydos. He may be identical with Amenemhet VII or a Sobekhotep.
z Chuiqer
Attested only on an architrave in Abydos.
aa Seanchptah
Ner-ka-Re
Attested only on a now-lost stela fragment. Probably identical with another king.
Si(?)-ka-Re
dd Pentini
A king from Abydos, likely placed at the transition from the 13th to the 17th Dynasty. Previously equated with another king Sechem-Re-chui-taui, but was likely an independent ruler.
Senebkay
Possibly a local ruler in Abydos, tomb discovered only in 2014.
Nehesy
Attested by some monuments in the northeastern Delta.
Cha-tit-Re
Turin King List: 8.2
Neb-fau-Re
Turin King List: 8.3
Sehab-Re
Turin King List: 8.4
Mer-djefa-Re
Contemporary only attested by a stela.
Schalik (Salitis)
Possibly identical to Scharek.
Beon
Possibly identical to Scheschi.
Apachnas
Possibly identical to Jaqobher.
Charjan
Exact classification uncertain. Monuments of Charjan were also found in Baghdad, Knossos, and Boghazköi, where they were either taken or gifted.
Apopi
Under Apopi I, the uprising of the Theban 17th Dynasty against the supremacy of the Hyksos took place. Under his rule, significant writings such as the Ebers, Smith, or Rhind papyri were created.
Chamudi (Chalmudi)
Chamudi had to relinquish the Hyksos capital Auaris to the Theban king Ahmose, marking the end of Hyksos rule.
a Anather (Anathaddi)
Attested only on a scarab; presumably a minor prince from southern Palestine.
b Aperanat (Useranat)
Attested only on a scarab; presumably a minor prince from southern Palestine.
c Semqen
Minor prince attested only on a scarab.
d Sakarher
e Apopi II.
Possibly identical to Apopi I.
f Scheschi
Attested on scarabs from Palestine to Kerma; possibly identical to Beon.
g Jaqobher (Jaqabhaddu)
Attested on scarabs up to Sudan; possibly identical to Apachnas or Beon.
h Jamu (Jaam)
Ruler attested only by scarabs in the Delta.
i Jaqebmu (Jakabam)
Attested only by scarabs.
j Aamu
Local prince attested by scarabs in Lower Egypt.
k Pepi III.
Attested only by scarabs.
Neb-maat-Re
Attested by an inscription on an axe; possibly a minor Middle Egyptian king.
Aa-hetep-Re
Attested only by scarabs.
Aa-netjeri-Re
Attested only on a scarab.
Mer-ib-Re
Attested only on a scarab.
Nub-anch-Re
Attested only by scarabs.
q Nikare II.
Attested only by scarabs.
...(?)-ka-Re
Attested only in the Turin King List, name heavily fragmented.
...-ka-Re
Attested only in the Turin King List, name heavily fragmented.
...-ka-Re
Attested only in the Turin King List, name heavily fragmented.
u Scharek
Possibly identical to Schalik.
v Wadjed
Attested only by scarabs.
w Qareh (Qur)
Attested only by scarabs.
x Schenes
y Inek
Attested only in the Turin King List, possibly assigned to the 14th Dynasty.
z A...
Attested only in the Turin King List, name heavily fragmented.
aa Ap...
Attested only in the Turin King List, name heavily fragmented.
Rahotep
Classification uncertain; may also belong to the 13th Dynasty.
Sobekemsaf I.
Attested by minimal construction activity and some rock inscriptions. His tomb was apparently opened and plundered as early as 1827.
Djehuti
Attested by several blocks and a canopic chest.
Mentuhotep VII.
His sphere of influence no longer extended far beyond Thebes.
Nebirirau I.
A previously speculated successor named Nebereraw II is likely to be dismissed.
Semen-en-Re
Attested only in the Turin King List and by an axe.
Bebanch
Previously assigned to the 14th or 16th Dynasty.
Sobekemsaf II.
Probably a son of Sobekemsaf I.
Anjotef V.
Anjotef VI.
He was a brother of Anjotef VII. His tomb was plundered around 1850.
Anjotef VII.
Possibly a son of Sobekemsaf II. Known mainly through his tomb in Western Thebes and some monuments from Karnak and Koptos.
Senacht-en-Re
He apparently originated from a different family than his predecessors.
Seqen-en-Re
Probably a son of his predecessor Senachtenre. He fought against the Hyksos and fell in battle.
Kamose
He continued the fight against the Hyksos and managed to expand his dominion northward.
Heqa-Ptah
Attested only by a stela, classification uncertain.
last pyramid as a burial site
Amenophis I.
Son of Ahmose. He ensured internal political stabilization of the state and expanded conquests into Nubia. He had numerous monuments erected, patterned after those of the Middle Kingdom.
Thutmosis I.
Thutmosis I was not related to his predecessors but came to the throne through marriage with a princess. He led campaigns against Nubia and Syria.
Thutmosis II.
He was married to his half-sister Hatshepsut and reigned only briefly.
Hatshepsut
Queen Hatshepsut initially ruled for the yet immature Thutmosis III but then made herself sole ruler. A relief in her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari attests an expedition to Punt.
Thutmosis III.
Thutmosis III came to power only after the death of his stepmother, Hatshepsut. He undertook numerous campaigns into Western Asia. Under him, Egypt reached its greatest extent.
Amenophis II.
Amenophis II was a son of Thutmosis III and co-regent with him for about two years. He conducted several campaigns in the Syrian-Palestinian region.
Thutmosis IV.
He freed the Great Sphinx of Giza from desert sand and erected the famous Sphinx stele.
Echnaton and Nefertiti
Amenophis IV (Echnaton)
Echnaton founded the first known monotheistic religion in world history with the worship of Aton as the only god. He had the new residence “Akhet-Aton” (Horizon of Aton) built in Amarna. After his death, his memory was obliterated.
Neferneferuaton
Classification as a reigning queen; identification as Meritaton (according to Rolf Krauss) or Nefertiti is, however, disputed.
Semenchkare
A king about whom almost nothing is known. He might have been only a co-regent of Echnaton.
Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun became famous mainly through his tomb. He moved the residence from Amarna to Memphis and restored the old religion. His early death continues to be the subject of much speculation.
Eje II.
Possibly the father of Nefertiti and thus the father-in-law of Echnaton; vizier under Tutankhamun.
Haremhab (Horemheb)
Haremhab was of non-royal origin and is attested as the commander-in-chief of the army under Tutankhamun.
Ramses I. (Ramesse I.)
Possibly a general and vizier under Haremhab.
Sethos I. (Sethi I.)
Sethos I. conducted campaigns in Syria and against the Libyans. His building activities were extensive. In Abydos, the famous royal list inscribed in his mortuary temple was created.
Ramses II.
Ramses II was one of the most significant pharaohs. Under his rule, the first known peace treaty in world history was drafted following conflicts with the Hittites. His building activity was the most extensive of all pharaohs. The biblical Exodus likely occurred during his reign.
Merenptah
Merenptah successfully repelled attacks by the Libyans and Sea Peoples. A people called Israel is mentioned for the first time under his rule.
Sethos II.
Several important papyri date from his reign.
Amenmesse
The exact classification of this pharaoh is unclear. He might have been a rival king during the reign of Sethos II.
Siptah
1st throne name: Year 1 to year 2 of reign
Tausret
Tausret was the wife of Sethos II, who already governed for the still underaged stepson Siptah and, after his early death, assumed sole rule.
Sethnacht
He likely opposed the regency of Tausret and shortly ascended the throne following her death.
Ramses III.
Ramses III waged wars against the Libyans and Sea Peoples. He fell victim to a conspiracy by some members of his court.
Ramses IV.
Second throne name from year 2 of reign.
Ramses V.
Several significant papyri, particularly concerning legal history, have been handed down from his reign.
Ramses VI.
In his first year of reign, Libyans likely invaded Egypt.
Ramses VII.
Documents from Deir el-Medina testify to an economic crisis during his reign.
Ramses VIII.
He is attested only from Medinet Habu and some small items.
Ramses IX.
The economic crisis persisted during his rule; there were looting incidents in necropolises.
Ramses X.
Son or son-in-law of Ramses IX.
Ramses XI.
The ongoing economic crisis culminated in a civil war under his rule.
Smendes I.
In the north 1080–1069? BC.
Amenemnesut
Contemporary only attested in the tomb of his successor Psusennes I.
Psusennes I.
Known primarily through his unrobbed tomb in Tanis.
Amenemope
Valuable grave goods were found in his tomb.
Osochor
Also known as "Osorkon the Elder" and likely of Libyan origin.
Siamun
Bore the title "Pharaoh" as the first ruler.
Psusennes II.
Almost nothing is known about him. He may be identical to the High Priest Psusennes III.
Pianch
A general of the late 20th Dynasty.
Herihor
Commander-in-chief of the army, Vice-King of Kush, and vizier during the transition from the 20th to the 21st Dynasty.
Pinudjem I.
King 1070/54–1032 BC.
Masaharta
Son of Pinudjem I.
Djedchonsiuefanch
Son of Pinudjem I.
Mencheperre
Son of Pinudjem I.
Smendes II.
Grandson of Psusennes I.
Pinudjem II.
Brother of Smendes II.
Psusennes III.
Possibly identical to Psusennes II.
Sheshonq I.
Conducted a campaign into Palestine and plundered the Temple of Jerusalem.
Osorkon I.
Rich donations to Egyptian temples and trade relations with Syria are attested of him.
Takelot I.
Not unequivocally attested contemporaneously.
Sheshonq II.
High Priest of Amun in Thebes and later co-regent of his father Osorkon I.
Osorkon II.
He supported the states of Syria-Palestine in their fight against Assyria. Co-regent with Takelot I from about 886/885 BC.
Harsiese I.
High Priest of Amun in Thebes and rival king
Hedj-cheper-Re
He appointed his son Osorkon as High Priest in Thebes, leading to a confrontation with Harsiese II. Takelot II came to power as co-regent in the 23rd year of Osorkon II around 856/855 BC.
Osorkon III.
During his reign, an exceptionally high Nile flood occurred.
Takelot III.
Originally High Priest of Amun in Thebes.
a Ini
Only attested by a graffito in the Montu Temple at Karnak. According to D. A. Aston, he would be the successor of Rudjamun in the Theban 23rd Dynasty.
b Pajeftjauemauibastet
Local king of Herakleopolis; considered by Aston to belong to the Theban 23rd Dynasty.
Sheshonq VI.
Existence uncertain.
Sheshonq III.
Documented through some building projects in the Delta.
Sheshonq IIIa.
Existence uncertain.
Pami
Apparently, a famine occurred at the end of his reign.
Sheshonq V.
Larger construction projects in Tanis are documented from his later reign years.
Petubastis II.
Osorkon IV.
He submitted to the Kushite Piye.
Petubastis I.
Opponent of Takelot II, Sheshonq III, and Osorkon, son of Takelot II.
Sheshonq IV.
Existence uncertain.
Rudjamun
Attested through minimal construction activity in Karnak and Medinet Habu.
Iuput II.
Iuput II was an opponent of Piye, but eventually submitted to him.
Tefnakht
Originally local king of Sais, then founder of the 24th Dynasty.
Bakenranef (Bocchoris)
Contemporaneously attested only by some steles and scarabs.
Alara
Not contemporaneously attested, probably did not rule in Egypt itself yet. Perhaps identical to Aryamani.
Kashta
Conquered Lower Nubia and Egypt up to Aswan.
Piye
Continued the campaigns of his predecessors and fully conquered Egypt.
Shebitku (Shabataka)
Lost a battle against the Assyrians in Palestine. Earlier research saw him as the successor of Shabaka.
Shabaka
First Kushite king to reside in Egypt.
Taharqa
His reign was marked by the struggle against the Assyrians, who took over northern Egypt up to Thebes in 667/66.
Tanwetamani
Brief reconquest of northern Egypt.
Iuput
Son of Sheshonq I.
Sheshonq II.
In later years a king of the 22nd Dynasty.
Iuwelot
Son of Osorkon I.
Smendes III.
Son of Osorkon I.
Harsiese I.
Son of Sheshonq II.
…diu…
Son of Harsiese I; name only partially preserved.
Nimlot (II.)
Son of Osorkon II.
Takelot
Son of Nimlot (II.), possibly identical to the Takelot who succeeded Harsiese II.
Osorkon (Prince)
Possibly identical with Osorkon III.
Harsiese II.
Possibly a grandson of Harsiese I.
Takelot
Son of Nimlot (II.), possibly identical with his successor, otherwise a younger son of the same name.
unclear
Takelot III.
Later a king of the 23rd Dynasty.
Haremachet
Son of Shabaka.
Harchebi
Son of Haremachet.
Ankhnesneferibre
God's Wife of Amun.
Nitocris II.
Daughter of Amasis
Karomama-Meritmut I.
Possibly daughter of Harsiese I.
Tashakheper
Shepenupet I.
Daughter of Osorkon III.
Amenirdis I.
Daughter of Kashta.
Shepenupet II.
Daughter of Piye.
Amenirdis II.
Daughter of Taharqa.
Nitocris I.
Daughter of Psamtik I.
Ankhnesneferibre
595–560 BC High Priestess of Amun simultaneously.
Esarhaddon
The anti-Assyrian policy of the Kushite 25th Dynasty prompted him to attack Egypt. He succeeded in conquering the Delta.
Ashurbanipal
After Esarhaddon's death, Ashurbanipal resumed the campaigns in Egypt and finally expelled the Kushites.
Psamtik I.
Moved the capital from Memphis to Sais. Supported Assur against the Medes and Scythians.
Necho II.
Built a naval force for the first time in Egyptian history. Ordered a canal to be constructed between the Nile and the Red Sea.
Psamtik II.
Waged war against Nubia and destroyed the monuments of the Kushite kings and his father.
Apries
After military failures in Palestine and Libya uprising under Amasis.
Amasis
Led Egypt to a new cultural and economic peak.
Psamtik III.
Reigned for only about 6 months. Defeated by Cambyses II at Pelusium.
Cambyses II.
Son of Cyrus the Great Conquered Egypt and incorporated it into the Persian Empire.
Darius I.
Along with Cyrus the Great, the most famous Persian king. Patron of the arts and a skilled reformer.
Psamtik IV.
according to some demotic documents from Diospolis Parva
Xerxes I.
Failed in the conquest of Greece.
Artaxerxes I.
Defeated a united army of Egyptians, Libyans, and Greeks in the Battle of Papremis.
Xerxes II.
Murdered in his sleep by Sogdianos.
Sogdianos
Captured and executed by Darius II.
Darius II.
Under him, Egypt regained independence with Greek support.
Artaxerxes II.
He was still recognized as Pharaoh in southern Egypt until 402 BC.
Amyrtaeus (Psamtik V.)
Only Pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty. Initially recognized only in Lower Egypt, in 400 BC in Upper Egypt as well.
Nepherites I.
Supported Sparta in its war against Persia.
Muthis
According to Manetho known as Muthis and according to demotic chronicle the son of Nepherites I.
Hakor
Conducted anti-Persian policy.
Psammuthis
Rival king.
Nepherites II.
Reigned for only 4 months.
Nectanebo I.
Deposed Nepherites II as ruler. In 373 BC, he successfully repelled a Persian invasion attempt.
Djedhor
Recaptured Palestine and Syria with the help of Greek mercenaries.
Nectanebo II.
Nectanebo II supported uprisings against the Persians, which nonetheless gradually conquered Egypt from winter 342/341.
Artaxerxes III.
He managed to reincorporate Egypt into the Persian Empire for a short time. He minted coins on which he referred to himself as Pharaoh. Artaxerxes was poisoned by his commander Bagoas.
Arses
Arses was installed by Bagoas as the new Great King after the poisoning of his father, but was later also poisoned.
Khababash
Rival king. His reign is sometimes referred to as the "32nd Dynasty."
Darius III.
His satrap Mazakes surrendered Egypt without a fight to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, who finally defeated Darius a year later.
Alexander III the Great
Conquered Egypt on his march and founded Alexandria.
Philip III Arrhidaeus
Half-brother of Alexander. Considered feeble-minded. Murdered by Olympias.
Alexander IV Aigos
Son of Alexander. Murdered by Cassander.
Ptolemy I Soter
One of Alexander the Great's generals and a Diadoch. Founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Builder of the Library of Alexandria.
Magas
Independent king of Cyrene. Led Cyrene to cultural prosperity.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Maintained Egypt's position in the first and second Syrian wars. Builder of the Lighthouse of Alexandria
Demetrius the Fair
Successor of Magas. Murdered by the Cyrenaean population after an affair with Apame (widow of Magas).
Ptolemy III Euergetes
After the Third Syrian War, greatest expansion of the Ptolemaic Empire.
?
Ptolemy IV Philopator
Won the Battle of Raphia against Antiochus III.
Horwennefer
Rival king in Upper Egypt; ruled in Thebes; recognized by the Amun priesthood.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
The Ptolemaic possessions in Europe, Asia Minor, and Syria were lost. Poisoned by his own courtiers.
Ankhennefer
Successor (possibly even the son) of Hor-wennofer. Captured and executed after the defeat against Comanos.
Ptolemy VI Philometor
Began the construction of the temple complexes of Philae. Fell in the Battle of Oinoparas.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes
Seleucid king. Forced to withdraw by the Romans on the Day of Eleusis.
Ptolemy Eupator
Eldest son of Ptolemy VI. Died in the summer of 152 BC.
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
Son of Ptolemy VI. Murdered by his uncle Ptolemy VIII.
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II
Expelled Jews and intellectuals from Alexandria. Led a civil war (132–124 BC) against Cleopatra II. Murdered his son Ptolemy Memphites.
Cleopatra II
Married her two brothers Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII. After the latter took her daughter as his wife, a civil war ensued.
Harsiese
Rival king in Thebes. Last ancient Egyptian to hold the title of Pharaoh.
Ptolemy IX Soter II.
Driven out to Cyprus by Cleopatra III. Waged war against Alexander Iannaeus.
Cleopatra III.
Intervened in the Seleucid family dispute. Murdered by her son Ptolemy X.
Ptolemy X Alexander I.
Driven out by Ptolemy IX. Died trying to conquer Cyprus.
Ptolemy Apion
King of Cyrene. Also referred to as Ptolemy IX.[20] Bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans.
Berenice III.
Daughter of Ptolemy IX. Murdered by Ptolemy XI.
Ptolemy XI Alexander II.
Son of Ptolemy X. Ruled for only a few days. Killed by an angry crowd.
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
Illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX. Recognized by the Roman Senate as amicus et socius populi Romani.
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
Illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX. Recognized by the Roman Senate as amicus et socius populi Romani.
Ptolemy of Cyprus
Under his rule and that of his brother Ptolemy XII, the empire was divided. Committed suicide after the Roman conquest of Cyprus.
Berenice IV.
Half-sister of Cleopatra. Deposed her father Ptolemy XII. Later murdered by him.
Cleopatra VI.
Briefly ruled with Berenice IV. 58/57 BC
Archelaus
Consort of Berenice IV. Fell in the battle against Aulus Gabinius.
Cleopatra VII.
Lover of Caesar and Antony. Suicide after the capture of Alexandria by Augustus.
Ptolemy XIII.
Brother of Cleopatra VII. Drowned while fleeing in the Nile.
Arsinoe IV.
Rival queen. Sister of Cleopatra VII. Captured by Caesar after the Alexandrine War.
Ptolemy XIV.
Brother of Cleopatra VII. Murdered by her.
Ptolemy XV Kaisarion
Son of Caesar. Appointed co-regent of his mother Cleopatra VII at the age of 3. Murdered on the orders of Augustus.
Augustus
Captured Alexandria in 30 BC, made Egypt a Roman province.
Tiberius
Ordered the persecution of the Isis cult in Rome in 19 AD.
Caligula
Integrated the Isis cult into the Roman state religion; persecution of Jews around 38 AD; executed Ptolemy of Mauretania around 40 AD.
Claudius
Commissioned the construction of the pronaos of the Temple of Khnum at Esna, the last new Egyptian temple.
Nero
Expedition to subdue the Kingdom of Meroe.
Galba
Attested in the Isis temple of Deir esch-Schelwit in Western Thebes.
Otho
Attested in the Isis temple of Deir esch-Schelwit in Western Thebes.
Vespasian
Ordered the closure of the Yahweh temple in Tell el-Yahudija.
Domitian
Strongly supported the Isis cult.
Nerva
Nerva is attested in Aswan, Esna, and Diospolis Parva.
Trajan
Jewish uprisings, among others, in Egypt and Cyrene around 115/116; active building in Egypt.
Hadrian
Founded Antinoopolis; Villa Adriana partially in the Egyptian style.
Antoninus Pius
Peasant revolt in Egypt 152/53 AD.
Marcus Aurelius
Revolt of Avidius Cassius in Egypt and Syria.
Lucius Verus
Lucius Verus is attested in Qaw el-Kebir and in Philae.
Commodus
Participated as an officiant of the Egyptian cult during processions.
Pertinax
Ruled for 3 months; hieroglyphically attested in Dakhla.
Septimius Severus
Reestablished city councils in Alexandria and other Egyptian cities.
Caracalla
First had the image of Serapis minted on coins; a revolt in Alexandria was bloodily suppressed.
Geta
Brother of Caracalla, murdered on his orders.
Macrinus
Murdered while fleeing from Elagabalus.
Diadumenianus
Son of Macrinus; murdered in Zeugma while fleeing from Elagabalus.
Severus Alexander
Last emperor of the Severans. Attested in the pronaos of Esna.
Philip the Arab
Killed in battle against Decius.
Decius
Attested in the Temple of Khnum at Esna.
Valerian
Attested only on a stela.
Aurelian
Attested only on a stela for an Apis bull.
Zenobia
After conquering Egypt, declared herself queen of Egypt.[22] Claimed descent from Cleopatra VII.
Probus
Repelled invading Blemmyes in Egypt.
Diocletian
Ordered the persecution of Christianity.
Maximian
Attested only on a stela.
Galerius
Suppression of the uprising in Busiris and Coptos (294 AD); rival emperors: Domitius Domitianus and Aurelius Achilleus (297 AD)
Maximinus Daia
Last hieroglyphically attested emperor.
Wrinkled dove snail
Badari culture
Early Dynastic Period
Old Kingdom
First Intermediate Period
Parallel dynasties
Middle Kingdom
Second Intermediate Period
New Kingdom
Third Intermediate Period
At times parallel, priest-kings in Thebes, Libyan principalities in the north
Greco- Roman Period
Naqada culture
Predynastic Period
Late Period
Takelot II.
During his reign, an exceptionally high Nile flood occurred.
Auput I.
During his reign, an exceptionally high Nile flood occurred.
1st + 2nd Dynasty - Early Pharaohs
18th Dynasty - Valley of the Kings
Takeover by Alexander the Great
Thinis (before 2950 BC)
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Avaris
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Sais
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Heracleopolis Magna
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Akhetaten (Amarna)
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Itjtawy
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Thebes
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Thebes
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Memphis
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Memphis
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Pi-Ramesses
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Tanis
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Bubastis/Tanis
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Mendes
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Leontopolis/Thebes
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Napata/Memphis
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Sais
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Sebennytos
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Alexandria
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unknown
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Meritneith
Lived alongside King (Pharaoh) Wadji. Archaeological finds suggest she might have ruled Egypt as an independent sovereign.
4th Dynasty - Golden Age of the pyramids, era of maximal centralization of the state
12th Dynasty - Era of significant centralization, Renaissance of grand pyramid construction
14th-17th Dynasty - Local rulers, Hyksos foreign rulers in the Delta, once again unified under Kamose
27th Dynasty - Persian foreign rule
Ramesside period
24th + 25th Dynasty - Nubians from Sudan take over the reign
26th Dynasty - Renaissance of Pharaoh culture
Amenhotep III.
Herodotus
490/480 BC; † around 430/420 BC
Temple of Abu Simbel
The Assyrian king attacks Egypt with an army and wins the first battle against the forces under Pharaoh Taharqa
Two further victories by the invaders follow a few days later.
Battle of Kadesh
[](mediaid=39746da2-2f8c-407b-b520-515a26371986)
Battle of Megiddo
Tiye
Great royal consort and de facto co-regent of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Her steward was Kheruef.
Manetho
Likely lived during the reign of Pharaohs Ptolemy I, Ptolemy II, and Ptolemy III.
4.2-kiloyear event
Climate catastrophe
Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty
Rosetta Stone
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Strike of Deir el-Medina First documented strike in history
[](mediaid=36dc0dc9-91cf-4f13-ad03-7e5cd6d9ba87)
Tale of the Two Brothers
Alexandrine War
Ebers Papyrus
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Edwin Smith Papyrus
London Papyrus
(presumably) On the 29th of Mechir of the Egyptian calendar, Hatshepsut is crowned Pharaoh of the New Kingdom in Ancient Egypt alongside her stepson and nephew Thutmose III, for whom she had been regent for two years.
Imhotep
Chief architect and lector priest of Djoser, likely responsible for the construction of the Djoser pyramid and the Sechemkhet pyramid in Saqqara.
The last datable hieroglyphs are inscribed
At "Hadrian’s Gate," inner north wall
After the death of Thutmose II, his three-year-old son Thutmose III is crowned Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt on the 4th of Pachon of the Egyptian calendar. His stepmother and aunt Hatshepsut assumes regency for him.
First finds of writing
Horses introduced to Egypt
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First well-documented finds of sundials
Ahmose I.
Ahmose is genealogically linked to the 17th Dynasty. He ultimately expelled the Hyksos from Egypt and reestablished rule over Nubia. Built the last royal pyramid in Egypt.