The Roman Empire
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Romulus, after killing his brother in a quarrel, is said to have founded and named the city. This mythological narrative emphasizes the central importance of Romulus and his descent from the gods, which was important for legitimizing subsequent Roman rule over large parts of the then-known world.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":108,"length":6,"key":3}],"data":{}},{"key":"983bi","text":"The Regal Period was characterized by monarchical rule. There were seven legendary kings of Rome in total, beginning with Romulus and ending with Tarquinius Superbus. This period was crucial for establishing the first Roman institutions and traditions. The first probable historical name among the kings is Numa Pompilius, who gave Rome religious laws and institutions, including many of the city's earliest temples.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":122,"length":7,"key":4},{"offset":141,"length":20,"key":5},{"offset":313,"length":8,"key":6}],"data":{}},{"key":"6uap6","text":"Another important king was Servius Tullius, who allegedly introduced the first Roman census system and divided the city into districts, which aided better organization. With Tarquinius Superbus, the last king, the Regal Period ended because he was hated for his tyranny and disregard for the Roman aristocracy, the Patricians. His fall marked the start of a new chapter: the Roman Republic.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":27,"length":15,"key":7}],"data":{}},{"key":"9763j","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"ec6ft","text":"Republic","type":"header-two","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":8,"key":8}],"data":{}},{"key":"5vg52","text":"After the fall of the last king, the Roman state constituted itself as a Republic, a significant political innovation: a state governed by elected magistrates and that adopted the Roman Constitution. At the center were two consuls, elected for one year, who shared executive power. Additionally, there was the Senate, mostly composed of Patricians, playing an important advisory role.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"aunb6","text":"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[],"data":{}},{"key":"1mk66","text":"-","type":"atomic","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":0,"length":1,"key":9}],"data":{}},{"key":"30uhh","text":"The time of the Republic was characterized by constant conflicts, both internal and external. The most famous domestic conflict was the so-called \"Struggle of the Orders\" between the Patricians and the Plebeians. The latter gradually secured more rights, including the establishment of the People’s Tribunes, who were to represent the interests of ordinary citizens.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":146,"length":24,"key":10}],"data":{}},{"key":"f0r3f","text":"Aside from these internal reforms, Rome continuously expanded during this period. The Republic doubled through conquest in Italy and beyond. The most well-known and decisive wars were the Punic Wars against Carthage, which was then one of the most powerful cities in the Western Mediterranean. The most famous Carthaginian general, Hannibal, led his army, including elephants, over the Alps during the Second Punic War, directly threatening Rome. 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Augustus was granted the title \"Augustus\" by the Senate in 27 BC, marking the beginning of the Principate and thus the establishment of the Imperial Period. This first phase of the Imperial Period is also referred to as the \"High Empire\" and was a period of peace and stability, known as the \"Pax Romana.\"","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":26,"length":8,"key":18},{"offset":129,"length":27,"key":19},{"offset":371,"length":17,"key":20}],"data":{}},{"key":"4ab01","text":"Under Augustus and his successors, the Roman Empire experienced a flourishing period in art, architecture, and culture. The infrastructure was significantly improved, with the construction of roads, aqueducts, and magnificent structures like the Colosseum. During this time, Rome continued to expand, securing its borders along the Rhine and Danube as well as in North Africa and the Near East.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":246,"length":9,"key":21}],"data":{}},{"key":"d6ddh","text":"However, the Imperial Period was also marked by political intrigues and power struggles. Rulers often changed through murderous palace intrigues, and some of the emperors, like Caligula and Nero, gained infamy for their tyranny and scandals. The consequences of these power plays were particularly evident in the so-called \"Crisis of the Third Century,\" when the empire suffered from civil wars, economic downturn, and external threats.","type":"unstyled","depth":0,"inlineStyleRanges":[],"entityRanges":[{"offset":68,"length":4,"key":22},{"offset":177,"length":8,"key":23},{"offset":323,"length":16,"key":24}],"data":{}},{"key":"av7tk","text":"In the following centuries, Rome stabilized under the rule of emperors like Diocletian and Constantine the Great, who implemented reforms and first tolerated Christianity and then elevated it to the state religion. 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Republic
Founding of Rome according to legend
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Imperial Period
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Late Antiquity
Regal Period
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Gaius Julius Caesar
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Pyrrhic War
Carthage cedes Sardinia and Corsica to Rome
3rd Punic War
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Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Destruction of 3 Roman legions. Rhine and Danube remain the border between Romans and Germans.
Twelve Tables Law - first record of Roman law
Nero
Roman emperor, last representative of the Julio-Claudian dynasty [Roman Emperors](-842606) [Biography of Nero](-1413)
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Western Roman Empire
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Division of the empire into western and eastern halves
Colosseum
First Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey, Crassus
Caesar conquers Gaul
[Caesar](74)
Slave revolt under Spartacus
Great Fire of Rome
Expansion of the dominion in Britannia
Porta Nigra (Trier)
Conflict of the Orders
1st Punic War
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by the Visigoths under Alaric
Construction of the Cloaca Maxima
Pantheon
Roman Civil Wars
Expansion of the Circus Maximus
Second Year of the Four Emperors (Five Emperors Year)
Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, Septimius Severus
Upper Germanic-Raetian Limes (Google Maps Overlay)
Via Appia
first aqueduct
Roman Empire reaches its greatest extent
under Emperor Trajan
Marcus Tullius Cicero
Roman politician, lawyer, writer, and philosopher
Early Republic
Classical Republic
Civil Wars
"Adoptive Emperors"
absolute monarchy (Dominate) [Classification from older research]
Roman-Syrian War
Battle of Philippi
Battle of Actium (marks the end of the Roman Republic)
Marius becomes consul, establishment of a professional army
Emperors from the Flavian family
Crisis of the Third Century
Arch of Trajan in Beneventum
Emperor Trajan
Replacement of the monarchy by the rule of the Patricians
first Secessio plebis
second Secessio plebis
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third Secessio plebis
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by the Gauls under Brennus (Battle of the Allia)
First Samnite War
First Latin War
Third Samnite War
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Second Samnite War
until 282: Rome achieves dominance over central and southern Italy
Rome achieves hegemony in the western Mediterranean region
Carthage becomes the first Roman province
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Social War
The Italian allies fight for equality as Roman citizens
Rome conquers Greece and the province of Asia
Province of Asia = western Asia Minor Rome achieves hegemony in the eastern Mediterranean region as well
2nd Punic War
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War with Antiochus III of Syria.
The king must cede Seleucid territory to Pergamon and Rhodes, allied with Rome
Rome achieves dominance over Northern Italy following a successful victory with Gauls
Second Macedonian War
Gallic War ends after varying battles with a Roman victory
First Macedonian War
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Rome turns the hinterland of destroyed Carthage into the new Roman province of Africa
Victory over Macedonia in the Battle of Pydna
Rome turns Macedonia into a new Roman province
Victory over Macedonia in the Battle of Pydna
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum
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Attalus III bequeaths the Pergamene kingdom to Rome
Third Macedonian War
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Second War against Mithridates
Defeat and death of Crassus at Carrhae in the fight against the Parthians
Sulla captures Rome and becomes dictator
First War against Mithridates VI of Pontus
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Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutons
Third War against Mithridates
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Consulship of Pompey and Crassus
Civil war between Caesar and Pompey
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War against Ptolemy
Octavian wages war against Antony and Cleopatra
Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide
Assassination of Caesar
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Defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus in Thessaly
Second Triumvirate: Antony, Octavian, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
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Caesar becomes dictator for life
[Gaius Julius Caesar](74)
Wars against the Dacians and their subjugation
Antony marries Cleopatra VII of Egypt
Octavian sole ruler
Egypt becomes a Roman province
[Ancient Egypt](334)
Octavian receives the title "Augustus"
Tiberius
Emperor from the Julian and Claudian family. [Roman Emperors](-842606)
Death of Augustus
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Nero
[Roman Emperors](-842606) [Biography of Nero](-1413)
Gaius, called "Caligula"
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Claudius
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Soldier Emperors
Domitian
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
First persecution of Christians
Nerva
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Titus
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Mutina War
The Caesar-killer Brutus is besieged by Marcus Antonius in Mutina (Modena)
“Elected” Emperor (Principate) [Classification from older research]
Trajan
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Hadrian's Wall
Conflicts with the Dacians
After several Roman defeats, peace treaty with the Dacians
Conquest of the Nabataean kingdom
Province Arabia
Second Marcomannic War
Parthian War
Conquest of Armenia, which becomes a province
Caracalla
Assassination of Caracalla by the praetorian prefect Macrinus [Roman Emperors](-842606)
Abandonment of the provinces Assyria and Mesopotamia
Hadrian
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
First Marcomannic War
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Conquest of Mesopotamia and the provinces Assyria and Mesopotamia
Year of the Four Emperors
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian
Marcus Aurelius
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Maximinus Thrax
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Victory over the Alemanni at Lake Garda
Great persecution of Christians
Persian campaign
Persians withdraw from Mesopotamia
Aurelian
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Beginning of the construction of the Aurelian Walls
Carus, Carinus, Numerian
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Diocletian
Conflict with Goths, Carpi, Sarmatians
Migration Period
Large-scale persecution of Christians
Emperor Constantine becomes the first Christian emperor
End of the persecution of Christians by the Edict of Tolerance of Galerius and Licinius
Maximinus Daia, the lord over Asia, begins new persecutions of Christians in the east. Licinius and Constantine join forces against Maxentius and Maximinus Daia.
Conflicts with usurpers in Britannia and Egypt
under Emperor Constantine, Christians are allowed to publicly profess their faith
Constantine
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
by the German Emperor Henry IV or the Normans under Robert Guiscard
Hunnic invasions
Theodosius I, the Great
[Roman Emperors](-842606)
Christianity becomes the state religion
Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman Empire
Battle of the Catalaunian Plains
End of the feared Hunnic invasions by Attila
Constantinople is conquered by the Muslim Ottomans
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by the Vandals under Genseric
Deposition of the last Western Roman Emperor
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Birth of Jesus
Adoption of 44-year-old Trajan by the childless Emperor Nerva → Beginning of the era of the Adoptive Emperors
Expansion under Augustus
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Handover of Tarent. Rome controls Greek southern Italy
Second Latin War
Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus
according to tradition
Romulus
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
by Germanic auxiliaries under Ricimer
by the Ostrogoths under Totila
by the Saracens
by mutinous troops of Emperor Charles V
Parthian War of Lucius Verus
Battle of Carrhae
Naval Battle of the Aegates Islands
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Battle of the Trebia: Carthaginians under Hannibal defeat the Roman army commanded by Tiberius Sempronius Longus
Battle of Lake Trasimene: Hannibal defeats two Roman corps
Battle of Cannae: Hannibal defeats the Roman army under Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro
P. Cornelius Scipio captures New Carthage in Spain
Battle of Zama: decisive Roman victory over Hannibal
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In Rome, a multi-day state ceremony begins, officially declaring the end of the Civil War.
While formally restoring the Republic, a structure tailored to Octavian is created, later known as the Principate.
In the Alexandrian War, the united armies of Gaius Julius Caesar and Mithridates of Pergamon achieve victory near Alexandria over the Egyptian forces under King Ptolemy XIII. The Egyptian ruler drowns in the Nile while fleeing after the battle.
Alexandrian War
Founding of the city of Carthage
according to Timaeus
First treaty between Rome and Carthage
according to Polybius
Leges Liciniae Sextiae. Admission of Plebeians to the highest office (Consulship)
Conquest of the Etruscan Veii by Rome
Lex Canuleia - Abolition of the prohibition of marriage between Plebeians and Patricians
Rebuilding of the Servian Wall
Servian Wall
Its construction is attributed to the Roman King Servius Tullius (reigned 578–534 BC). Under Tarquinius Superbus, the successor of Servius Tullius, the Servian Wall is said to have been reinforced and specifically elevated in the area of the Agger Tarquinii again. The remains present today, however, date only from the 4th century BC
Rome defeats the Latin League and dissolves the confederation
Lex Hortensia - Plebeians achieve equality with the Patricians
Roman Navy
Sicily
Catilinarian Conspiracy
Speeches against [Catiline](-1055008)
Marcus Licinius Crassus
Politician, known for his wealth. Born 115 or 114 BC
Lucius Sergius Catilina
Roman Politician, Conspirator
Consul Marcus Tullius Cicero learns of the Catilinarian Conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina. The Roman Senate declares the state of emergency with extended powers for the consuls.
Marcus Tullius Cicero gives before the Roman Senate the first of his speeches against Catiline, accusing Lucius Sergius Catilina of plotting an assassination attempt against him and the overthrow of the Roman Republic the previous day.
Cicero delivers the last of his speeches against Catiline. Cato's expression of opinion subsequently leads to the imposition of the death penalty for the conspirators of the coup attempt in the Roman Empire.
Numa Pompilius
Tullus Hostilius
Ancus Marcius
Servius Tullius
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Pax Romana